4Answer both parts of the question (a) Describe the mechanisms of carbohydrate digestion and absorption (b) Describe the physiological roles of secretin and the pharmacological mechanisms of histamine 2 receptor (H₂ receptor) antagonist in secretin release. (10%)

1 Answer both parts of the question (a) Distinguish between “tonicity” and “osmolality” (b) A 70 kg male has a body fluid osmolality of 290 mOsm/kg water. Assume 290 millimoles of NaCl are added to the extracellular fluid (ECF). Describe in words what fluid and solute shifts, if any, take place. Calculate the final osmolality of the body fluid, and the final ECF and intracellular fluid (ICF) volumes. (10%)

2 Answer both parts of the question (a) Discuss the physiological importance of the FrankStarling mechanism and the balancing between the cardiac and vascular (venous return) function curves (b) Describe the receptors, afferent pathways, integrating center, efferent pathways and effectors in the baroreceptor reflex. (12%)

3 What is the “anion gap”? What does a high “anion gap” mean? (8%)

5 Sketch out an organizational chart showing the sensorimotor system which incorporates all the afferent, efferent, and central integration and processing components involved in maintaining balance and posture as well as coordinating voluntary movement. (10%)

6 Please give the pathological classification of cardiomyopathy and emphasize the clinicopathologic, etiologic, and mechanistic aspects of each category. (20%)

7 What are pathological characteristics of acute respiratory distress syndrome? (15%)

8 What is the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) and what is the target therapeutic approach based on the pathogenesis of this tumor? (15%)

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